Understanding Social Exclusion, Exploring Perspectives on Polarisation
The DRIVE (Determining multi-level led causes and testing intervention designs to reduce radicalisation, extremism and political violence in north-western Europe through social inclusion) project received its funding from the European Commission’s H2020 Research and Innovation Actions programme under grant agreement No. 959200. It ran from January 2021 to June 2024.
The DRIVE project was a European Union H2020 Research and Innovation Actions initiative that investigated the relationship between social exclusion and extremism in north-western Europe. Led by myself out of Leiden University’s Institute of Security and Global Affairs, the project sought to understand how feelings of disenchantment and marginalisation can affect polarising ideas, values, and beliefs.
This cross-disciplinary endeavour brought together a consortium of nine key European partners. The academic institutions involved were Aarhus University, the University of Cambridge, the University of Liverpool, the University of Oslo, Umeå University, and Leiden University. These universities collaborated with civil society organisations Fryshuset and ConnectFutures, and the Norwegian hospital trust Sykehuset Innlandet, to provide practical advice for policymakers and foster long-term solutions to societal conflicts.
Publications from the DRIVE project
Academic publications
Abbas, Tahir, Vostermans, Lianne, and McNeil-Willson, Richard (eds.). 2026. The Routledge International Handbook on Social Exclusion and Radicalisation, Abingdon: Routledge, forthcoming (February).
Abbas, T., McNeil-Willson, R., and Vosternams, L., ‘The dialectic of Islamophobia and Islamism: A cross-national inquiry into four European societies’, Cooperation and Conflict, forthcoming.
Abbas, T. and McNeil-Willson, R., ‘Resilience and Resistance: How Young Northwestern European Muslims Confront Pedagogical Islamophobia’, Race Ethnicity and Education, published online 10 December.
Abbas, T., ‘Beyond the Racialised Islamophobic Narrative: Muslim Identity as a Protective Factor Against Radicalisation’, Critical Sociology, published online 24 November.
Abbas, T., and Khattab, N., 2025, ‘Belief, Belonging, and Borders: Mapping Faith, Identity, and Integration Across European Cities, Quality & Quantity, published online 13 October.
Abbas, T. and McNeil-Willson, R., 2025, ‘From Margins to Extremes: Economic Factors, Social Integration, and the Radicalisation of European Youth, Journal of Intercultural Studies, published online 12 October.
Abbas, T. and McNeil-Willson, R., 2025, ‘Digital Masculinities in Crisis: Understanding Virtual Pathways to Male Extremism Across Communities’, Men and Masculinities, published online 7 October.
Abbas, Tahir and McNeil-Willson, Richard. 2025. ‘Echoes of Fascism?Social Exclusion and Radicalisation among Muslim Minorities and Ethnic Majorities in Northwestern Europe’. Fascism. 14(1): 143–171
Abbas, Tahir, McNeil-Willson, Richard, Boyd-MacMillan, Eolene, and DeMarinis, Valeries. 2025. ‘Humiliation and perceived power loss as drivers of radicalisation vulnerability in Northwestern Europe’. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, published online.
Abbas, Tahir and McNeil-Willson, Richard. 2025. ‘Beyond the urban-rural binary: spatial dynamics of integration, segregation, and radicalisation in Northwest Europe’. Ethnic and Racial Studies, published online.
Abbas, Tahir and Nabil Khattab. 2025. ‘Faith and Intolerance: How Does Religious Identity Mediate Responses to Discrimination in Northwestern Europe?’. Omran, 13 (52): 7-35
Abbas, Tahir. 2024. ‘Radicalisation studies: An emerging interdisciplinary field’. British Journal of Sociology 75(2): 232-238.
Mughal, Rabya, Valerie DeMarinis, Maria Nordendahl, Hassan Lone, Veronica Phillips, and Eolene Boyd-MacMillan. 2023. ‘Public Mental Health Approaches to Online Radicalisation: An Empty Systematic Review’. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20(16); 6586.
Cuppens, Tessa. 2022-2023. ‘Conference Note: Offline Exclusion, Online Inclusion?’ Journal for Deradicalization 33: 318-328.
Bieber, Hannah. 2021. ‘Conference Note: The Challenges of Researching Extremism Today’. Journal for Deradicalization 28: 83-195.
Drive project publications
Tahir Abbas, Tobias Müller, Lianne Vostermans, Mark Sedgwick, Cathrine Thorleifsson, Gabe Mythen, Leona Vaughn, Jacob Astley, and Sandra Walklate—and Valerie DeMarinis, Eolene Boyd-MacMillan, and Maria Nordendahl are authors of the Public Mental Health Overview Report accompanying the main report (2022) D3.1. Preparatory Research-Radicalisation in North-West Europe: The State of the Art. The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 21 Jul 2021, Approval Date: 18 May 2022).
This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the current state of radicalisation research in northwest Europe, focusing on Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, and the UK. It explores the enabling factors of radicalisation, including spatial dynamics, identity politics, intergenerational change, and reciprocal radicalisation. The document evaluates existing research, identifies knowledge gaps, and outlines key research and policy questions. It emphasises the importance of multi-level analysis and the integration of public mental health frameworks to understand and address radicalisation effectively.
Cathrine Thorleifsson, Valerie DeMarinis, Eolene Boyd-MacMillan, Maria Nordendahl, Tahir Abbas, Tobias Müller and Lianne Vostermans (2022) D3.2. Methodology Report and on Online Mapping. The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 23 Jul 2021, Approval Date: 18 May 2022)
The “Methodology Report on Online Mapping” (Deliverable 3.2) for the DRIVE project focuses on understanding the entanglements of online and offline spaces in radicalisation processes. The report outlines a methodology that integrates digital ethnography and public mental health approaches to analyse social media platforms and websites used by far-right and Islamist activists. Key platforms identified include Facebook, 4chan, 8chan/8kun, and Telegram. The report emphasises ethical considerations, such as informed consent and anonymisation, and discusses the challenges of conducting online fieldwork. The research aims to provide insights into the dynamics of online radicalisation and its impact on offline behaviour, contributing to enhanced strategies for countering violent extremism in northwestern Europe.
Gabe Mythen, Leona Vaughn, Jacob Astley, Sandra Walklate, Tahir Abbas, and Tobias Müller (lead authors); Mark Sedgwick, Lianne Vostermans, and Cathrine Thorleifsson (contributing authors) (2022) D3.3. Study Area Report. The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 16 Jul 2021, Approval Date: 18 May 2022)
This report outlines case study areas in the UK (London, Manchester), Norway (Oslo, Kristiansand), Denmark (Copenhagen, Aarhus), and the Netherlands (Amsterdam, The Hague) for the EU-funded DRIVE project. It provides socio-economic, historical, and demographic profiles of each location, alongside evidence of extremism, political violence, and community tensions. The study focuses on understanding how social exclusion and identity politics contribute to radicalisation among Islamist and far-right groups. Key themes include post-2008 austerity impacts, migration patterns, ethnic diversity, and localised responses to extremism, such as community-led interventions. For example, Manchester and London are highlighted for their diverse populations and histories of terrorist attacks, while Aarhus and Copenhagen are noted for their “dialogue-based” deradicalisation programs. The report serves as a foundation for fieldwork involving interviews, surveys, and focus groups to design social inclusion strategies aimed at reducing political violence in northwestern Europe.
Tahir Abbas, Tobias Müller, PMHT (Eolene Boyd-MacMillan, Valerie DeMarinis, Maria Nordendahl), and Lianne Vostermans (2022) D3.4. Workshop a (Instruments). The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 20 Jul 2021, Approval Date: 18 May 2022)
This report outlines the development of multi-disciplinary research instruments for the EU-funded DRIVE project, which investigates social exclusion’s role in radicalisation and political violence across Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, and the UK. It details ethical and methodological challenges in studying “far-right” and “Islamist” groups, emphasising the need for reflexivity, transparency, and a consolidated ethics framework. The document highlights a June 2021 workshop where experts discussed strategies for digital ethnography, intersectional gender approaches, and mitigating risks in participant observation. Key outcomes include refining interview protocols to accommodate diverse demographics and integrating public mental health perspectives into sociological and political science methodologies. The report also addresses terminological debates (e.g., avoiding stigmatising labels like “vulnerable”) and the logistical complexities of multi-country, mixed-methods research amid covid 19 restrictions. A pilot study in two countries is planned to test the interdisciplinary approach, combining anthropology, ethnic studies, and public health to analyse online and physical contexts of radicalisation. Ethical approval processes, led by the University of Cambridge, aim to harmonise standards across institutions while ensuring compliance with national regulations.
Tahir Abbas, Eolene Boyd-MacMillan, Valerie DeMarinis, Gabe Mythen, and Mark Sedgwick (2024). D7.1. Major report-Investigating Social Exclusion and Radicalisation, The Hague: Leiden University Receipt Date: 18 Nov 2024, Approval Date: 19 Nov 2024)
This EU-funded DRIVE Project report investigates the interplay between social exclusion and radicalisation in Northwestern Europe. Combining qualitative fieldwork and quantitative analysis across Denmark, the Netherlands, the UK, and Norway, it examines perspectives from marginalised Muslim youth and nationalist groups. Key findings highlight how spatial segregation, identity politics, and intergenerational tensions fuel reciprocal radicalisation. The report critiques policies that deepen exclusion (e.g., restrictive immigration laws) and emphasises public mental health impacts, such as heightened stress and anxiety linked to systemic marginalisation. It proposes interventions focused on community engagement, mental health support, and inclusive education to disrupt radicalisation pathways. The study underscores cross-national similarities in grievances (e.g., perceived cultural threats) while noting variations in policy responses. Recommendations stress multilevel governance, youth empowerment, and addressing online-offline radicalisation dynamics.
Tahir Abbas (2024) D7.2. Major conference-International Conference Report (Receipt Date: 26 Jun 2024, Approval Date: 19 Nov 2024)
This report summarises the DRIVE Project’s international conference held in Brussels on June 11-12, 2024. The conference aimed to disseminate the project’s findings on the relationship between social exclusion and radicalisation in the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, and the United Kingdom. It brought together scholars, policymakers, practitioners, and community members to discuss research findings, bridge disciplinary gaps, and develop evidence-based policies. Key topics included the mental health impacts of social exclusion, insights into far-right and Muslim communities, and translating research into policy. The conference sought to promote inclusive policies, empower communities, and strengthen partnerships to address the root causes of exclusion and polarisation, contributing to more resilient and cohesive societies.
Joana de Deus Pereira, Inés Bolaños Somoano, Cátia Moreira de Carvalho, and Tahir Abbas (2024) D8.1. Workshop-Operationalising Research Findings and Developing the Diagnostic Matrix. The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 18 Nov 2024, Approval Date: 19 Nov 2024)
This report details the outcomes of Workshop 8.1 (28 June 2024), a pivotal event in the EU-funded DRIVE project, which focused on translating research findings into practical tools to counter radicalisation and promote social cohesion. It evaluates training sessions conducted in the UK, Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands, highlighting strengths such as participant engagement with case studies and comparative analyses of Muslim and nationalist groups, while noting challenges like time constraints and diverse practitioner needs. Central to the workshop was the development of a diagnostic matrix—a structured tool to assess social exclusion, alienation, and radicalisation through domains like contextual indicators and intervention pathways. The report emphasises ethical considerations and strategies for disseminating findings across academic, policy, and public spheres. Next steps include refining the matrix, expanding training resources, and establishing an online platform for stakeholder engagement.
Tahir Abbas, Cátia Moreira de Carvalho, and Inés Bolaños Somoano (2024), D8.3. Practitioner Toolkits, The Hague: Leiden University, (Receipt Date: 18 Nov 2024, Approval Date: 19 Nov 2024)
This report presents the DRIVE project’s comprehensive toolkit designed to assist practitioners in addressing radicalisation through social inclusion. Launched in January 2021 and concluding in June 2024, the DRIVE project examines the interplay between social exclusion, identity, and vulnerability to radicalisation among Muslim and white nationalist communities across Northwestern Europe. The toolkit provides structured guidance for frontline professionals, offering practical strategies for identifying signs of radicalisation and designing interventions that promote social cohesion. It outlines core domains critical to understanding radicalisation—individual factors, social relationships, community dynamics, and societal influences—and emphasises multi-agency collaboration and community-based approaches. Additionally, it includes risk and protective factors, practical intervention strategies, and contextual considerations, supported by examples from fieldwork in Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, and the UK. The document also addresses ethical considerations and resource constraints faced by practitioners, aiming to enhance their capacity to foster resilient, inclusive communities.
Tahir Abbas, Cátia Moreira de Carvalho, and Inés Bolaños Somoano (2024) D8.4. Training Materials, The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 21 Jul 2024, Approval Date: 19 Nov 2024)
The report titled “D8.4 Training Materials” outlines the framework and modules of a training program developed under the DRIVE project, funded by the European Commission. The project aims to understand and prevent radicalisation among Muslim and ethnic majority communities in northwestern Europe. It provides practical guidelines and tools for practitioners working in areas of social exclusion and radicalisation. Modules address essential topics such as the identification of radicalisation, social exclusion, public mental health, and engagement strategies. The training is designed to foster community resilience and promote social cohesion, with a focus on inclusivity. By emphasising the importance of multi-agency collaboration, the report highlights the need for tailored interventions that empower communities to counteract radicalisation effectively.
Joana de Deus Pereira, Inés Bolaños Somoano, Cátia Moreira de Carvalho, and Tahir Abbas (2024) D8.5. Training Workshops, The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 18 Nov 2024, Approval Date: 19 Nov 2024)
This report details the training workshops conducted as part of the DRIVE project, aimed at disseminating research findings on radicalisation prevention to practitioners across various sectors in northwestern Europe. Between June 2 and June 27, 2024, training sessions were held in Birmingham (UK), Oslo (Norway), Copenhagen (Denmark), and The Hague (Netherlands). These workshops targeted professionals from law enforcement, social services, government, education, and healthcare, providing them with insights into radicalisation processes and strategies for prevention. The curriculum included key concepts and definitions, public mental health frameworks, comparative analyses of radicalisation trends across countries, and case studies illustrating theoretical concepts. Participants valued the interactive format and the integration of mental health discussions within radicalisation prevention, highlighting the importance of addressing underlying social and psychological factors. Feedback indicated a desire for more discussion time and clearer explanations of terms, guiding future improvements. The sessions successfully bridged academic research with practical application, fostering critical thinking and transnational cooperation among attendees.
Hannah Bieber and Astrid de Vries (2021) D9.1 Project Website, The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 29 Jun 2021, Approval Date: 18 May 2022)
This report outlines the development and role of the DRIVE project’s website as a key component of its dissemination and communication strategy. Launched in January 2021 and concluding in December 2023, the DRIVE project focuses on reducing radicalisation, extremism, and political violence in Northwestern Europe through social inclusion. The website serves as a central platform for sharing research outcomes, advertising events, and providing accessible content to diverse audiences, including researchers, practitioners, civil society actors, and the general public. Key sections of the site include the homepage, blog, events, team profiles, project overview, and publications. The blog section is particularly aimed at engaging a broader audience with accessible academic insights on topics such as security, identity politics, and extremism. Challenges addressed include attracting and retaining an audience through engaging content and regular updates, while ethical considerations focus on avoiding stigmatisation and ensuring the protection of researchers. The website reflects the project’s commitment to maintaining an inclusive, informative online presence that supports its goals of fostering social cohesion and preventing radicalisation.
Hannah Bieber and Astrid de Vries (2021) D9.2. Social Media Tools, The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 29 Jun 2021, Approval Date: 18 May 2022)
This report outlines the social media strategy for the DRIVE project, focusing on the use of Twitter and LinkedIn to enhance dissemination and communication efforts. Launched in January 2021 and concluding in December 2023, the DRIVE project aims to reduce radicalisation, extremism, and political violence in Northwestern Europe through social inclusion. The social media strategy is a key component of the project’s broader outreach plan, designed to reach a wider audience beyond the project website and attract participants to events. Twitter serves as a microblogging platform targeting a broad audience, including professionals, civil society, and the general public interested in social inclusion and radicalisation. It emphasises short, impactful posts with consistent visual branding, hashtags, and interactive content to engage users. LinkedIn, being business-orientated, targets professionals and organisations, focusing on expanding networks and sharing professional content like blogs and publications. Both platforms aim to grow their audience, advertise events, direct traffic to the DRIVE website, and foster engagement. Challenges include achieving substantial growth, maintaining consistent posting schedules, and addressing ethical concerns related to sensitive topics. Strategies to overcome these involve leveraging partner networks, optimising hashtags, sharing relevant content, and adhering to ethical guidelines to prevent stigmatisation. The report underscores the importance of monitoring analytics to refine strategies and ensure effective communication.
Astrid de Vries (2021) D9.3. Online Dissemination, The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 01 Jul 2021, Approval Date: 18 May 2022)
This report outlines the blog post strategy for the DRIVE project as part of its broader dissemination and communication efforts. Launched in January 2021 and concluding in December 2023, the DRIVE project focuses on reducing radicalisation, extremism, and political violence in Northwestern Europe through social inclusion. The blog serves as a key platform for sharing accessible academic insights with a wider audience, including practitioners, policymakers, and the general public. The blog posts are designed to address topics related to security, identity politics, and extremism while maintaining an approachable tone suitable for non-academic readers. Key strategies include publishing one blog post per month, ensuring articles are between 500-700 words, and promoting them across the project’s social media channels, particularly Twitter and LinkedIn, to maximise reach. Challenges identified include maintaining consistent posting schedules, avoiding stigmatisation of vulnerable groups, and balancing academic rigour with accessibility. Ethical considerations focus on preventing harm through careful language use and consulting partners to align on best practices. By fostering engagement and expanding its audience, the blog aims to support the project’s goals of promoting social cohesion and preventing radicalisation.
Tahir Abbas and Oliver de Haan (2024) D9.4. Proactive Media Engagement, The Hague: Leiden University (Receipt Date: 05 Jul 2024, Approval Date: 19 Nov 2024)
The report outlines the communication and dissemination strategy for the DRIVE project, which focuses on reducing radicalisation, extremism, and political violence through social inclusion in northwestern Europe. It details the project’s social media engagement, emphasising platforms such as X (formerly Twitter) and LinkedIn to enhance visibility and foster engagement with stakeholders. The report provides insights into the planned frequency and content of posts, aiming to maintain a consistent presence without overwhelming followers. Metrics are discussed to assess the impact of outreach activities, noting successful engagement with the community pre- and post-events, such as conferences. The overarching goal is to effectively communicate the project’s objectives and results while promoting collaborative networks within the field.
